Topic 5 of 92: Cartography: Mapping the Planet Earth
Sat, Jul 10, 1999 (18:55) |
Marcia (MarciaH)
With advent of Global Positioning Satellites (GPS) it is getting harder to lose your way. Mapping the newest land masses and the inherent problems.
49 responses total.
Topic 5 of 92 [Geo]: Cartography: Mapping the Planet Earth
Response 1 of 49: Marcia (MarciaH) * Tue, Jul 13, 1999 (22:36) * 2 lines
This is as good a site as any in the United States for mapping information and map sources
http://mapping.usgs.gov/
Topic 5 of 92 [Geo]: Cartography: Mapping the Planet Earth
Response 2 of 49: Marcia (MarciaH) * Fri, Feb 11, 2000 (22:22) * 219 lines
The map below shows the coverage of the mapping of the earth mission of STS99. It will be the most extensive mapping project ever undertaken.
Endeavour OV105
Launch: Friday, February 11, 2000
12:30 PM (eastern time)
Mission Objectives
The primary objective of the Shuttle Radar Topography Mission is to acquire a
high-resolution topographic map of the Earth's land mass (between 60°N and
56°S) and to test new technologies for deployment of large rigid structures and
measurement of their distortions to extremely high precision.
The Shuttle Radar Topography Mission represents a breakthrough in the
science of remote-sensing and will produce topographic maps of Earth 30
times as precise as the best global maps in use today. The information will be
used to attempt to produce one of the most comprehensive and accurate maps
of Earth ever assembled.
A Comparison of Resolution Data
Data Statistics
Planned Data Takes
Approximately 1,000 (every time Endeavour is over
land)
Data Acquisition
more than 80 hours
Data recording rate
180 Mbits/sec for C-band, 90 Mbits/sec for X-band
Total Raw Radar Data
9.8 Terabytes (15,000 CDs)
Data Tapes
300 high-density tapes (each tape records 30 min. of
C-band, or 60 min. of X-band data)
In addition, this mission offers a number of applications for data products and
science, including: geology, geophysics, earthquake research, volcano
monitoring; hydrologic modeling; ecology; co-registration and terrain correction
of remotely-acquired image data; atmospheric modeling; flood inundation
modeling; urban planning; natural hazard consequence assessments; fire
spread models; and transportation/infrastructure planning.
Civilian Applications
Enhanced ground collision avoidance systems for aircraft; civil engineering, land
use planning, and disaster recovery efforts; and line-of-sight determination for
communications, e.g., cellular telephones.
Military Applications
Flight simulators; logistical planning, air traffic management; missile and
weapons guidance systems; and battlefield management, tactics.
Space Radar Mission To Detail the Earth's Surface
An innovative imaging radar, the first to map the Earth in three dimensions, is
the primary payload onboard STS-99, the first Shuttle flight of the new century.
Known as the Shuttle Radar Topography Mission, this radar system represents
a breakthrough in the science of remote-sensing and will produce topographic
maps of Earth 30 times as precise as the best global maps in use today. The
information has the potential to produce one of the most comprehensive and
accurate maps of Earth ever assembled.
Scheduled for launch no earlier than January 31 from the Kennedy Space
Center, the Space Shuttle Endeavour will carry the radar into space for an
11-day mission to learn more about the planet's changing landscapes, its
environmental health, and many ecosystems.
Space Radar Mission To Detail the Earth's Surface
An innovative imaging radar, the first to map the Earth in three dimensions, is
the primary payload onboard STS-99, the first Shuttle flight of the new century.
Known as the Shuttle Radar Topography Mission, this radar system represents
a breakthrough in the science of remote-sensing and will produce topographic
maps of Earth 30 times as precise as the best global maps in use today. The
information has the potential to produce one of the most comprehensive and
accurate maps of Earth ever assembled.
Scheduled for launch no earlier than January 31 from the Kennedy Space
Center, the Space Shuttle Endeavour will carry the radar into space for an
11-day mission to learn more about the planet's changing landscapes, its
environmental health, and many ecosystems.
The imaging radar will be able to capture landscapes that have been sculpted
through the millennia, with the passage of ice ages and periods of warmer
weather. This new imaging system will orbit at 145 miles (233 kilometers) above
Earth, with two radar antennas mounted in the Shuttle payload bay and two
extended on a 200-foot-long (60-meter) mast. The radar will image vast, barren
deserts, frozen tundra, and deep valleys carved by glaciers, such as those found
in Alaska, the Andes, and Himalaya mountains. The vestiges of ancient human
settlements, such as the Eighth Century Khmer civilization of Angkor,
Cambodia, and the habitats of endangered species, such as the mountain
gorillas of Central Africa will be mapped.
The 13-ton radar system will be able to collect highly accurate, high-resolution
images of Earth's crust between 60 degrees north latitude and 56 degrees
south latitude. The regions to be mapped are home to about 95 percent of the
world's population and will be captured with an accuracy of better than 100 feet
(30 meters).
The genesis of the Shuttle Radar Topography Mission lies in NASA's 1994
flights of the Spaceborne Imaging Radar C/X-band Radar on STS-59 and
STS-68. Several modifications have been made to the radar systems, which
give the mission new capabilities compared with its predecessors. The
cornerstone of innovation is the addition of a C-band and an X-band antenna at
the end of a deployable mast, which will be the longest rigid structure ever flown
in space. This will be the first time that a dual-antenna imaging radar is flown,
allowing scientists to use a technique called interferometry--which is akin to
combining stereo images--to map terrain elevation in a single pass.
The 13-ton radar system will be able to collect highly accurate, high-resolution
images of Earth's crust between 60 degrees north latitude and 56 degrees
south latitude. The regions to be mapped are home to about 95 percent of the
world's population and will be captured with an accuracy of better than 100 feet
(30 meters).
The genesis of the Shuttle Radar Topography Mission lies in NASA's 1994
flights of the Spaceborne Imaging Radar C/X-band Radar on STS-59 and
STS-68. Several modifications have been made to the radar systems, which
give the mission new capabilities compared with its predecessors. The
cornerstone of innovation is the addition of a C-band and an X-band antenna at
the end of a deployable mast, which will be the longest rigid structure ever flown
in space. This will be the first time that a dual-antenna imaging radar is flown,
allowing scientists to use a technique called interferometry--which is akin to
combining stereo images--to map terrain elevation in a single pass.
By using interferometry to combine two images electronically, researchers will
be able to generate computer versions of topographic maps, called digital
elevation models. With the exception of weather satellite measurements, this
topographic information will be the most universally useful data set about the
Earth ever produced.
The mission is a partnership between NASA and the National Imagery and
Mapping Agency, in which the agencies are jointly seeking information with
valuable research and operational uses. The Shuttle Radar Topography Mission
will provide important information for NASA's Earth Science Enterprise, which is
dedicated to understanding the total Earth system and the effects of human
activity on the global environment.
In addition to NASA and the National Imagery and Mapping Agency (NIMA), the
Shuttle Radar Topography Mission is a collaboration of the German Aerospace
Center (Deutsches Zentrum fur Luft- und Raumfart) and the Italian Space
Agency, which provided the experimental X-SAR radar system. The two
agencies are providing science teams for the mission. The Jet Propulsion
Laboratory is managing the project for NASA's Earth Sciences program in
Washington, D.C.
Background
The Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) provides a platform for
mapping vast areas of the Earth in the relatively short time of a Shuttle flight. In
addition, the processing of SRTM data will be almost completely automatic,
allowing nearly 1 trillion measurements of the Earth's topography to be
integrated into a consistent, high-resolution map.
Surprisingly, our home planet isn't mapped as well as one might think. A few
countries, such as the U.S., much of Europe, Australia, and New Zealand, have
digital maps at the 30 m (100 foot) resolution level, but the vast majority of our
planet lacks maps at that resolution, and many lack reliable maps altogether.
The main reason for this is that much of the globe, the equatorial regions in
particular, are cloud-covered much of the time. Thus, optical cameras on
satellites or aircraft can't image the areas. SRTM radar, with its long wavelength,
will penetrate clouds as well as providing its own illumination, making it
independent of daylight.
The land area to be mapped by SRTM
In the past decade, numerous imaging radar satellites have been lofted to orbit
by the European Space Agency, Japan, and Canada. These radar systems
have been demonstrated to have the capability to produce digital topographic
data in many situations. However, none of these satellites was designed for the
production of digital topographic maps, so they lack some important features of
SRTM. The most important feature they lack is a second antenna. While it is
possible to obtain the second radar image on a subsequent orbit using a single
radar system, it is difficult to measure the separation between the two passes to
the required millimeter accuracy. If enough control points can be measured in
each scene so that the elevation is known for those points, it is possible to solve
for the unknown radar positions. Since SRTM will measure the separation and
orientation of its two antennas to a high precision, it needs few control points to
make its maps.
SRTM is the culmination of a broad arc of technological innovation. Starting with
the first civilian spaceborne imaging radar, Seasat, in 1978, it was discovered
that meaningful radar images of the land could be obtained from space.
Subsequent tests using the Shuttle proved the worth of that platform for
improving the technology. The third Shuttle Imaging Radar, SIR-C, tested two
critical technologies required for the development of SRTM: active, phased
array antennas and ScanSAR. The active antenna was required for its ability to
steer to any angle through electronic manipulation of the radar beam. No moving
parts were required. ScanSAR was derived from that capability. The radar
beam is literally scanned back and forth across as the Shuttle orbits, painting
out a much wider swath than was possible in ordinary operation. Thus, the
earlier swath of 50 km was increased to 225 km. It turns out that 225 km is just
enough for an 11-day Shuttle mission to literally "cover the Earth" by painting
one swath at a time.
Topic 5 of 92 [Geo]: Cartography: Mapping the Planet Earth
Response 3 of 49: World Builder (MarciaH) * Sun, Feb 13, 2000 (21:07) * 59 lines
'Fly Cast' Keeps Shuttle Radar Mast Stable
CAPE CANAVERAL, Fla. (Reuters) - Astronauts on the space shuttle
Endeavour did a tricky piece of flying dubbed a ``fly cast'' on Sunday to boost
the shuttle's orbit without too much jiggling of a 20-story radar mast being
used to make the world's finest three-dimensional map of Earth's surface.
The astronauts were in their third day of orbit and their second day of
map-making, using sophisticated radar gear aboard the orbiter and at the end
of the 197-foot mast.
A technical problem arose with a small thruster at the end of the mast that
appeared to be malfunctioning, NASA said. The small puffs of nitrogen gas,
about one-third ounce pressure, help keep the shuttle and mast stabilized.
Without that thrust, the astronauts had to use control jets on the orbiter to
keep the configuration stable, but those jets may not have enough fuel to
complete the 11-day mission. Mission managers were assessing the problem
on Sunday night.
The radar mast, a truss made of stainless steel, titanium and plastic, is
lightweight and resilient, just like the fly-fishing rods used by fishermen in
trout streams.
As with the fly rod, a gentle touch gets the best results.
Unlike a fly rod, Endeavour's crew does not want to see its mast whipping
back and forth, since that would upset the radar readings.
``Early this morning when we got up we did the very first fly-cast maneuver,
and it was just about perfect,'' shuttle pilot Dom Gorie said in an interview.
The maneuver began with a short forward firing of the orbiter's control jets,
which causes the radar mast to bend back as the shuttle accelerates.
As the mast whipped back forward, the crew caught it at its vertical point by
firing the thrusters again, offsetting the mast's forward momentum. They
continued to fire until the shuttle reached the desired orbit.
Since Endeavour is flying in a rather low orbit for this mapping mission, the
upper fringes of Earth's atmosphere slow it down and cause it to lose altitude.
The maneuver's success was one of the critical milestones for the 11-day
mission.
``All six of us were up on the flight deck to watch and perform that maneuver,
and it came off without a hitch,'' Gorie said. ``We'll be doing that once a day,
and it'll raise up the orbit two to three miles (3 to 5 km) on each attempt.''
As Gorie spoke, the shuttle was flying over nighttime Siberia, bouncing radar
signals off cities, mountains, forests and anything else that shapes Earth's
surface. On the same 90-minute orbit, they measured the Scottish Highlands
and the Oslo Fjord.
``We've already got about 15 percent'' of Earth, said Mamoru Mohri, an
astronaut with the NASDA, the Japanese space agency and a mission
specialist on Endeavour.
The crew is expected to record about 72 percent of the planet in nine days of
mapping.
A 10th day would allow it to get 80 percent, virtually every land mass between
the polar circles.
``We are hoping for an extra day,'' said Mohri.
The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) has said the
topographical data collected by Endeavour will result in a map that is 30
times better than existing whole-Earth maps, but most of it will remain
classified.
Although the best quality map of the United States will be made public, the
rest of the world will be available to scientists and civil engineers only on a
case-by-case basis. A
lower resolution world map, which is still superior to existing charts, also
would be made public, NASA said.
The six Endeavour astronauts are scheduled to land at the Kennedy Space
Center in Florida on Feb. 22.
Topic 5 of 92 [Geo]: Cartography: Mapping the Planet Earth
Response 4 of 49: World Builder (MarciaH) * Fri, Feb 18, 2000 (23:30) * 18 lines
This topographic radar image shows the city of Honolulu, Hawaii and adjacent areas on the island of Oahu. Honolulu
lies on the south shore of the island, right of center of the image. Just below the center is Pearl Harbor, marked by
several inlets and bays. Runways of the airport can be seen to the right of Pearl Harbor. Diamond Head, an extinct
volcanic crater, is a blue circle along the coast right of center. The Koolau mountain range runs through the center of
the image. The steep cliffs on the north side of the range are thought to be remnants of massive landslides that
ripped apart the volcanic mountains that built the island thousands of years ago. On the north shore of the island are
the Mokapu Peninsula and Kaneohe Bay. High resolution topographic data allow ecologists and planners to assess
the effects of urban development on the sensitive ecosystems in tropical regions.
This image combines two types of data from the Shuttle Radar Topography Mission. The image brightness
corresponds to the strength of the radar signal reflected from the ground, while colors show the elevation as
measured by SRTM. Each cycle of colors (from pink through blue back to pink) represents an equal amount of
elevation difference (400 meters, or 1300 feet) similar to contour lines on a standard topographic map. This image
contains about 2400 meters (8000 feet) of total relief.
Topic 5 of 92 [Geo]: Cartography: Mapping the Planet Earth
Response 5 of 49: World Builder (MarciaH) * Fri, Feb 18, 2000 (23:34) * 2 lines
More infor,ation and a bigger version of this image is available:
http://www.spring.net/marcia/public/GeoMaps/PIA02720.jpg
Topic 5 of 92 [Geo]: Cartography: Mapping the Planet Earth
Response 6 of 49: World Builder (MarciaH) * Sat, Feb 19, 2000 (13:12) * 1 lines
Today is gloriously clear and sunny, so I'm gonna go out every 90 minutes, look up and smile. This is definitely the day to photograph our island. It is not often to have a totally clear morning on this side of the island Hello. world!
Topic 5 of 92 [Geo]: Cartography: Mapping the Planet Earth
Response 7 of 49: World Builder (MarciaH) * Sat, Feb 19, 2000 (15:28) * 16 lines
All of you in Austin, look and smile, too. They are photograph you, as well:
TEXAS, HAWAII AND OMAN - SRTM'S LATEST IMAGES
Dallas, Texas, the Hawaiian Islands, and Salalah,
Oman are the locations of the newly released SRTM
images. Access these images through the Mission
Products section below.
NINE HOURS ADDED ON TO SHUTTLE MAPPING MISSION
Mission managers announced a nine-hour extension to
the data-taking portion of the mission, which means
mapping will continue until about Monday at 7am EST.
More than 42 million square miles of the Earth have been
mapped at least once and over 27 million square miles
have been mapped with two or more passes. At 40,000
square miles of land a minute, SRTM can capture the
topographic data of Rhode Island in two seconds.
Topic 5 of 92 [Geo]: Cartography: Mapping the Planet Earth
Response 8 of 49: World Builder (MarciaH) * Sat, Feb 19, 2000 (15:33) * 6 lines
Dallas has already been photographed
http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/PIAGenCatalogPage.pl?PIA02722
So has the San Andreas Fault (tiff download)
http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/tiff/PIA02712.tif
Topic 5 of 92 [Geo]: Cartography: Mapping the Planet Earth
Response 9 of 49: Wolf (wolf) * Tue, Mar 14, 2000 (20:32) * 1 lines
i was gonna ask about the mapping of hawaii and look, you've already taken care of it!
Topic 5 of 92 [Geo]: Cartography: Mapping the Planet Earth
Response 10 of 49: Marcia (MarciaH) * Tue, Mar 14, 2000 (20:50) * 1 lines
I think only 10% of what they photographed is available for our eyes (My civilian eyes, that is.) We are lucky to have seen as much as we have. DoD gets the rest of the pictures, of course!
Topic 5 of 92 [Geo]: Cartography: Mapping the Planet Earth
Response 11 of 49: Wolf (wolf) * Tue, Mar 14, 2000 (20:53) * 1 lines
yeah, well, it'll be made public when they've done with it. i won't see it either. and i know no one in the cartography field in the military. i know someone in the pentagon! *grin*
Topic 5 of 92 [Geo]: Cartography: Mapping the Planet Earth
Response 12 of 49: Marcia (MarciaH) * Tue, Mar 14, 2000 (21:33) * 1 lines
If I knew someone in the Pentagon, it would probably be a floor sweeper. *sigh*
Topic 5 of 92 [Geo]: Cartography: Mapping the Planet Earth
Response 13 of 49: Marcia (MarciaH) * Wed, Apr 19, 2000 (17:37) * 27 lines
NASA research aircraft scanning Hawaii
The aircraft is taking photographs digitally or on film
By Anthony Sommer
Star-Bulletin
LIHUE — Even as you’re reading this, you could be photographed either digitally or on film by an
Airborne Visible and Infra-Red Imaging Spectrometer shooting your picture in 224 spectral channels
from an airplane flying 13 miles above you.
For most of April, NASA’s Airborne Science ER-2 research aircraft is scanning all of Hawaii. The
ER-2 the science version of the famous U-2 spy plane used early in the Cold War and one of two
based at the NASA Dryden Flight Research Center at Edwards Air Force Base, Calif. The aircraft
started flying from Hickam Air Force Base last week.
The ER-2’s instruments are mapping the extent and distribution of coral reefs in the greater
Hawaiian chain, studying volcanic flows and gas plumes over Hawaii’s big island and tracking land
use changes, according to NASA.
The aircraft’s last photo mission to Hawaii was September 1992, when it conducted a damage
assessment after Hurricane Iniki.
The ER-2 carries two digital scanners and two film cameras. The Airborne Visible and Infra-Red
Imaging Spectrometer looks downward at the Earth simultaneously in 224 spectral bands. Different
spectral bands can be used to study geology, agriculture, forestry, land use, atmospheric
composition or weather.
The ER-2 also is carrying a second scanner duplicating one launched in December on NASA’s
Terra Satellite to study the Earth’s global energy balance and contribute to climate change studies.
The instruments flying on the ER-2 will be used to calibrate and verify the satellite data.
The ER-2 aircraft typically flies at 65,000 feet. Most ER-2 missions last about six hours with ranges
of about 2,500 miles at 467 miles per hour. It is 63 feet long, with a wingspan of 104 feet.
Topic 5 of 92 [Geo]: Cartography: Mapping the Planet Earth
Response 14 of 49: (sprin5) * Tue, Apr 25, 2000 (08:07) * 1 lines
Hey, we'll get to see Marci out in her patio!
Topic 5 of 92 [Geo]: Cartography: Mapping the Planet Earth
Response 15 of 49: Marcia (MarciaH) * Tue, Apr 25, 2000 (12:36) * 1 lines
Lanai, sprin5, Lanai Come over and you'll see =)
Topic 5 of 92 [Geo]: Cartography: Mapping the Planet Earth
Response 16 of 49: Cheryl (CherylB) * Wed, Apr 26, 2000 (17:12) * 1 lines
What kind of plants do you have on the lanai? Do you have lianas growing on the lanai?
Topic 5 of 92 [Geo]: Cartography: Mapping the Planet Earth
Response 17 of 49: World Builder (MarciaH) * Wed, Apr 26, 2000 (18:46) * 1 lines
No lianas on the Lanai - Bouganvillas in pots. Lianas everywhere else. Take a look at that little pothos plant you have in a pot. One was tossed under my poinciana tree and it climbed and climbed until the vine is the thickness of my wrist (tiny, by most standards - about 6" circumference). Don't let them do it to your trees - it will kill it eventually! (I shall try to get the hairy-chest beater to yank it down again. He threw it out there in the first place!)
Topic 5 of 92 [Geo]: Cartography: Mapping the Planet Earth
Response 18 of 49: Cheryl (CherylB) * Wed, Apr 26, 2000 (18:54) * 1 lines
The estrogen challenged one should at least do that. As you noted, it's that "why" chromosome.
Topic 5 of 92 [Geo]: Cartography: Mapping the Planet Earth
Response 19 of 49: World Builder (MarciaH) * Wed, Apr 26, 2000 (19:10) * 1 lines
Indeed! *laugh*
Topic 5 of 92 [Geo]: Cartography: Mapping the Planet Earth
Response 20 of 49: Marcia (MarciaH) * Thu, Jun 1, 2000 (15:33) * 23 lines
Mercator Projection
Cartographers have been trying for centuries to develop a
method of displaying the surface of our globe on a flat map
with the least possible distortion. It is mathematically
impossible to unwrap a sphere in a way that meets all
desirable criteria, so each of the different projections
has its own advantages and disadvantages.
One of the most famous projections is named after its
inventor, Flemish cartographer Gerardus Mercator, who lived
in the sixteenth century. The best aspect of the Mercator
projection is that the primary compass directions are all
projected as straight lines, which is useful for
navigation. However, the disadvantage of this projection is
that it severely distorts the relative surface area of each
country, making those near the poles appear much larger
than is the case. For example, China and Greenland appear
the same size, although China is about actually about four
times as large. There are many other projections that
resolve this flaw, usually at the expense of distorting the
shapes of the continents.
Topic 5 of 92 [Geo]: Cartography: Mapping the Planet Earth
Response 21 of 49: Marcia (MarciaH) * Wed, Jun 21, 2000 (23:34) * 1 lines
We desperately need someone who actually has done mapping to post here. Ask a guy who has trod the convoluted ground to contour a quadrangle map for the USGS. You will find a guy who truly knows the ground on which he trod and can explain it to you. Nothing nearly sophisticated as GPS was available when these veterans made the maps which define in minute detail, the United States of America.
Topic 5 of 92 [Geo]: Cartography: Mapping the Planet Earth
Response 22 of 49: Marcia (MarciaH) * Wed, Jun 21, 2000 (23:34) * 1 lines
(and, Yes, I do know one such...!)
Topic 5 of 92 [Geo]: Cartography: Mapping the Planet Earth
Response 23 of 49: (sprin5) * Thu, Jun 22, 2000 (08:40) * 1 lines
I took a cartography course at U of I.
Topic 5 of 92 [Geo]: Cartography: Mapping the Planet Earth
Response 24 of 49: Marcia (MarciaH) * Thu, Jun 22, 2000 (13:07) * 1 lines
You once mentioned that you had studied it and enjoyed it, as I recall. Did you do any actual mapping? If so, how did you do it? Walk every inch and measuure then measure some more??? Did you have to identify the rocks underfoot? Please tell us more. My cartography was all class work despite the fact that Penn State is surrounded by lots of good "what happened here" stuff!
Topic 5 of 92 [Geo]: Cartography: Mapping the Planet Earth
Response 25 of 49: (sprin5) * Thu, Mar 8, 2001 (07:47) * 6 lines
This is really, really, really awesome.
Did I say I liked this Texas mapping site?
http://txdot.lib.utexas.edu/
Topic 5 of 92 [Geo]: Cartography: Mapping the Planet Earth
Response 26 of 49: Marcia (MarciaH) * Thu, Mar 8, 2001 (23:36) * 1 lines
That really is a fantastic site and wish every state had one such!!! Texas, I got you covered!!!
Topic 5 of 92 [Geo]: Cartography: Mapping the Planet Earth
Response 27 of 49: Paul Terry Walhus (terry) * Tue, Sep 4, 2001 (11:40) * 15 lines
This is a digital library of Earth and near Earth surface maps.
It may be key to understanding the wind flows that bring us closer to
comprehending global warming.
cartome.org
3 September 2001
Source: http://www.nap.edu/html/geolibraries/
Distributed Geolibraries
Spatial Information Resources
Summary of a Workshop Panel on Distributed Geolibraries
http://www.cartome.org/distributed-geolibraries.htm
Topic 5 of 92 [Geo]: Cartography: Mapping the Planet Earth
Response 28 of 49: Curious Wolfie (wolf) * Sun, Sep 9, 2001 (11:39) * 1 lines
mapping overwhelms me. saw on discovery a mystery concerning a norse map. this map included North America and according to an expert, the details matched up but another expert says the writing on the map doesn't jive with the year the map was drawn up. the first expert said that cartographers use the latitude and longitudanal lines to relay information, so how does one do that?
Topic 5 of 92 [Geo]: Cartography: Mapping the Planet Earth
Response 29 of 49: Marcia (MarciaH) * Sun, Sep 9, 2001 (19:13) * 11 lines
that is where an astrolabe or sextant comes in. You need a starting point. We use north.... and a compass. Even ancient mariners had polarizing stones to tell them the direction of north compared with the sun.
Origin Latitude, Origin Longitude
The origin is the point specified in longitude and latitude from which all coordinates are referenced. It is chosen to optimize the accuracy of a particular coordinate system. As we move north from the origin, Y increases. X increases as we move east. These coordinate values are generally called northings and eastings.
For the Transverse Mercator projection the origin’s longitude defines the central meridian. In constructing the Transverse Mercator projection a cylinder is positioned tangent to the earth. The central meridian is the line of tangency. The scale of the projected map is true
along the central meridian. In creating a Hotine Oblique Mercator projection it is necessary to specify a great circle that is not the equator nor a meridian. MapInfo does this by specifying one point on the ellipsoid and an azimuth from that point. That point is the origin of the coordinate system.
http://testdrive.mapinfo.com/mapxhelp/map00242.htm
Let me hunt for something less difficult to understand and more historical.
Topic 5 of 92 [Geo]: Cartography: Mapping the Planet Earth
Response 30 of 49: Marcia (MarciaH) * Sun, Sep 9, 2001 (19:16) * 23 lines
Portuguese map-maker Pedro Reinel first drew latitude scale on the
prime meridian (starting point for measuring longitude) in 1506.
By the 1520s Portuguese experts realized that the scientific
precision equal to that they had achieved in fixing latitude could only
be approximated in establishing longitude. Only a sufficiently
accurate clock would finally solve the problem, they said. Until such
a time, they suggested a variety of ways of estimating the difference
in time between the starting point (prime meridian) and where they
were, including the path of the solar eclipse.
Zero longitude was first located in the Portuguese Madeira
Islands (indicated by the red-and-blue-flag).
For the next 300+ years the world calculated longitude from
Portuguese islands. Even as their sea-power waned, Portugal's
prime meridian remained the world standard until the English
achieved dominance during the nineteenth century. As nautical
charts increasingly became produced in England sailors began to
use both Portuguese and English standards. In 1884 a European
conference narrowly ratified the placement of the prime meridian
in Greenwich England.
Good links and images on this site and the ones leading from it:
http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~feegi/chart2.html
Topic 5 of 92 [Geo]: Cartography: Mapping the Planet Earth
Response 31 of 49: Marcia (MarciaH) * Sun, Sep 9, 2001 (19:21) * 19 lines
Origins of the Compass Rose
by Bill Thoen
The compass rose has appeared on charts
and maps since the 1300's when the
portolan charts first made their
appearance. The term "rose" comes from
the figure's compass points resembling
the petals of the well-known flower.
Originally, this device was used to
indicate the directions of the winds
(and it was then known as a wind rose),
but the 32 points of the compass rose
come from the directions of the eight
major winds, the eight half-winds and
the sixteen quarter-winds.
more... http://www.gisnet.com/notebook/comprose.html
Topic 5 of 92 [Geo]: Cartography: Mapping the Planet Earth
Response 32 of 49: Marcia (MarciaH) * Sun, Sep 9, 2001 (19:32) * 11 lines
Hmmm....of course, there is a Greek connection...
The Phoenicians and Greeks were the first of the Mediterranean sailors to navigate far from land and to
sail at night. They made primitive charts and knew a crude form of dead reckoning. They used
observations of the sun and the North Star or polestar to determine directions. They estimated
distances from the time it took to cover them.
Advances in seamanship - the art of handling a ship - kept pace with advances in navigation. The
Egyptians used rowers, the Phoenicians and Greeks increased the number of tiers of rowers. The
Greeks added a second mast in the bow and the Romans a third mast in the stern.
http://isa.dknet.dk/~janj/navigation.html#Early Developments in Navigation
Topic 5 of 92 [Geo]: Cartography: Mapping the Planet Earth
Response 33 of 49: Curious Wolfie (wolf) * Sun, Sep 9, 2001 (20:46) * 3 lines
thanks for all that info...i think what boggles me is that this map (or any map for that matter) had all the nooks and crannies of a continent. how do they do that? keep going and writing down every step they take? that's just overwhelming to me.
oh, in case you were wondering, the norse map i was referring to do supposedly was done before columbus ever set sail....this would mean that the nordic peoples discovered north america and when columbus came, he already knew where he was going. so anyway, some monk or priest decided to figure that out for himself and according to the expert against the map, the priest made the map to put an end to his search for it. she said the priest used a rule to help him write in a line and that this style of writing was apparant on the map, no way did this occur during medieval times BUT, the guy arguing for the map said that all the stuff lines up and the time is right according to continental drift and all that known stuff. so my theory is that this priest had indeed found this map and wrote on it while it was in his possession after much research (forgot where he was from but he was an expert on maps during his lifetime).
Topic 5 of 92 [Geo]: Cartography: Mapping the Planet Earth
Response 34 of 49: Marcia (MarciaH) * Sun, Sep 9, 2001 (21:18) * 3 lines
Peri Reis map? Ah yes, there is considerable controversy as to the authenticity of that little item. http://www.mind.net/maps/htmla/pirireis.htm Just do a Google.com search for him and you will find more fringe speculation than fact.
You and I also wonder how they got all the little bays and inlets. Maps fascinate me and even though I have been on mapping edpeditions of the new flows of lava, I still am not certain how they got all the lobes in the right place and the undulations of the shoreline. If I ever do find out, I'll tell you, too.
Topic 5 of 92 [Geo]: Cartography: Mapping the Planet Earth
Response 35 of 49: Curious Wolfie (wolf) * Mon, Sep 10, 2001 (19:13) * 1 lines
good because that is just something else. and to think that men penned these maps and they won't even stop for directions! (no offense to our counterparts)
Topic 5 of 92 [Geo]: Cartography: Mapping the Planet Earth
Response 36 of 49: Marcia (MarciaH) * Mon, Sep 10, 2001 (20:26) * 3 lines
lolol good point. Think they must have had their secretaries along taking notes. That is how I get us back from whence we came. They even get all those little wiggles in the creeks right! Think I'll ask my kid if he remembers. He took cartography as part of his geology degree.
John, do you know how they get all those things (wiggles in streams and irregular shorelines) on maps just by walking the land?
Topic 5 of 92 [Geo]: Cartography: Mapping the Planet Earth
Response 37 of 49: Paul Terry Walhus (terry) * Fri, Sep 21, 2001 (09:05) * 7 lines
http://www.mapquest.com/cgi-bin/ia_find?link=btwn%2Ftwn-map_results&uid=udvco0z5i4g2b5zd%3Atnh6r2l6t&SNVData=3mad3-9u%2Chr%253brlq0ts%253d%253dtn9rzl%252495-dut%253bvj%257cs0w%2Cbb6%257c_%253d%253a%2528_F%2515%2528xh4aag%253a_whurlu%253aa%253bteqej%253bxmwjs8%25241w-u.wf7%253bxcx5sf7.grfe%257cs%25247wv%2528u&pcat=&aphoto=1&MAP_AB_LABELS=&WORK=&map.x=264&map.y=285&mouse_mode=center
compare to
http://ortho.mit.edu/nsdi/draw-ortho.cgi?image=229906&dwidth=500&width=500&dheight=500&height=500&zoom_level=1&middlex=1620&middley=2752&x=258&y=251
Topic 5 of 92 [Geo]: Cartography: Mapping the Planet Earth
Response 38 of 49: Marcia (MarciaH) * Fri, Sep 21, 2001 (19:37) * 1 lines
Amazing clarity on the second photos. Mapquest is intersting in that I can look at anyone's house but my own in the US. No aerial maps of Hawaii are available.
Topic 5 of 92 [Geo]: Cartography: Mapping the Planet Earth
Response 39 of 49: Marcia (MarciaH) * Wed, Oct 3, 2001 (19:03) * 7 lines
remote sensing taken way far out:
MAP READY TO MEASURE AFTERGLOW FROM THE BIG BANG
------------------------------------------------
After its three-month journey through space, NASA's Microwave Anisotropy Probe arrived at its observation station a million miles from Earth on Monday to measure the oldest light in the cosmos.
http://spaceflightnow.com/news/n0110/02map/
Topic 5 of 92 [Geo]: Cartography: Mapping the Planet Earth
Response 40 of 49: Marcia (MarciaH) * Fri, Oct 26, 2001 (20:20) * 8 lines
SATELLITES & REMOTE SENSING
* New Views of Earth
* HALOE Still Going Strong After a Decade
* India Launches Polar Satellites
References
1. http://www.sciquest.com/cgi-bin/ncommerce3/ExecMacro/sci_level3.d2w/report?nav_banner=bio&resource=articles&gateway=S-satrem
Topic 5 of 92 [Geo]: Cartography: Mapping the Planet Earth
Response 41 of 49: Marcia (MarciaH) * Tue, Oct 30, 2001 (14:00) * 55 lines
News Release
U.S. Department of the Interior
U.S. Geological Survey
USGS and FIU Join Forces to Fly
Ever wonder what it would be like to fly over the Earth's surface?
Well the U.S. Geological Survey and Florida International University
(FIU) today (October 26, 2001) announced a new Internet technology,
TerraFly, that will let you interactively fly over the Earth's surface
and explore spatial data such as aerial photography, satellite imagery,
street maps and locale information.
The TerraFly interface will make USGS holdings of map data, satellite
images and aerial photographs available to the public in innovative
ways. USGS and FIU will work together to incorporate three-dimensional
image viewing into TerraFly, expand the use of high-speed networks for
data delivery and ensure data and interfaces are compliant with U.S
and international standards. The five-year agreement will culminate
with one of the largest and most extensive Web databases of geospatial
data accessible worldwide.
"Partnership projects like TerraFly provide excellent opportunities for
the USGS to leverage technology to help us ensure that our scientific
information can be used easily and reliably," said Kathryn Clement,
USGS Deputy Director. "We see the TerraFly as being a step in the
right direction in providing customers seamless access to USGS data,"
Clement said.
TerraFly, which is found at http://www.terrafly.com, will allow users
of all levels to explore these seamless data using Internet Explorer
or Netscape web browsers. In addition to browsing the database, users
will be able to purchase digital or printed images over the Internet.
TerraFly was developed in cooperation with NASA, the National Science
Foundation and IBM.
The USGS expects to start delivering data to FIU later this year with
nearly full coverage of the continental U.S. planned in the first 2
years. Additional global satellite data sets from Landsat 7 may also
be incorporated into TerraFly.
Florida International University will host the data at their
High-Performance Database Research Center in Miami, Florida, provide
the software, hardware, and system management, and will handle the
e-commerce activities.
The USGS serves the nation by providing reliable scientific information
to describe and understand the Earth; minimize loss of life and property
from natural disasters; manage water, biological, energy, and mineral
resources; and enhance and protect our quality of life.
***USGS***
This press release and in-depth information about USGS programs may
be found on the USGS home page: http://www.usgs.gov.
Topic 5 of 92 [Geo]: Cartography: Mapping the Planet Earth
Response 42 of 49: Marcia (MarciaH) * Fri, Nov 2, 2001 (19:37) * 5 lines
The ultimate mapping resource for the United States of America is the USGS website located at http://mapping.usgs.gov/ Their links and maps are unequaled for the territory they cover.
For the UK, it is the Ordnance survey http://www.ordsvy.gov.uk/
Perhaps one of them will tell me all about how they managed to get the outline of the continents so precise before they had aerial photography...
Topic 5 of 92 [Geo]: Cartography: Mapping the Planet Earth
Response 43 of 49: Marcia (MarciaH) * Fri, Nov 2, 2001 (19:47) * 3 lines
For the Cradle of Democracy and Western Civilization, the mapping of Greece is found at the following url http://arcas.nuclear.ntua.gr/radmaps/th.html
Topic 5 of 92 [Geo]: Cartography: Mapping the Planet Earth
Response 44 of 49: Marcia (MarciaH) * Tue, Nov 6, 2001 (18:53) * 221 lines
Four press releases: Energy, Coastal Mapping, Florida and Chesapeake Crater
Energy Sessions Fuel New Science
From Boundaries to Barrels: Sequence Stratigraphy and Petroleum Resource
Assessment of Federal Land in Northern Alaska: Wednesday, November 7, at
2:15 p.m., in Hynes Convention Center, room 313: USGS scientist, Chris
Potter, will summarize the USGS approach to hydrocarbon assessment in
fold-thrust related structures beneath the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge
(ANWR) coastal plain and the National Petroleum Reserve, foothills and
coastal plain on Alaska's North Slope. The talk will highlight some of the
geologic analysis that underlies the 1998 USGS petroleum assessment of
ANWR's "1002 area", and the December 2001 assessment of the National
Petroleum Reserve. The assessment of economically recoverable oil and gas
in these "deformed areas" is subject to a number of poorly-defined
variables. USGS scientist David Houseknecht will then discuss how Alaska
North Slope exploration has focused on stratigraphic objectives. This has
resulted in the discovery of at least ten oil fields ranging in size from
50 to over 400 million barrels of recoverable oil. Most onshore areas of
northern Alaska not yet explored for stratigraphic "traps" are federal
lands, including the National Petroleum Reserve and the "1002 area" of the
Arctic National Wildlife Refuge.
Federally Owned Coal, Federal Lands, and Coal Quality in the Western United
States Wednesday, November 7 at 3:35 p.m. in Hynes Convention Center, room
313: Federally owned coal plays a major role in the energy supply of the
United States. Federal coal production has tripled in the last 25 years to
more than 37 percent of the total U.S. coal production in 2000. The
primary reason for the increased production of federal coal is the demand
for coal low in total sulfur content and ash yield. Such coals are
desirable because they are generally compliant with air-emissions standards
for coal-fired electric power plants where more than half of the
electricity in the Nation is generated. Large reserves of this desirable
coal are federally owned in the western United States. Results from the
recently completed USGS National Coal Resource Assessment include an
estimated resource value of 1,170 billion short tons of assessed coal in
Wyoming, Montana, North Dakota, Colorado, Utah, and New Mexico. About 75
percent of that total, or 880 billion tons, is coal that is federally
owned. In 2000, about one-third of a billion dollars in royalties was
generated from production of federal coal. Half of that amount, over $165
million, was dispersed to the producing states.
The USGS serves the nation by providing reliable scientific information to:
describe and understand the Earth; minimize loss of life and property from
natural disasters; manage water, biological, energy, and mineral resources;
and enhance and protect our quality of life.
Using Lidar to Document Coastal Change
At the annual meeting of the Geological Society of America, in Boston,
Tuesday, November 6, at 9:15 a.m., scientists with the U.S. Geological
Survey (USGS) will describe partnerships between their agency and other
public agencies and the private sector that are contributing to a greater
understanding of public areas, such as national parks. John Brock, a
researcher at the USGS Center for Coastal Studies in St. Petersburg, Fla.,
will tell colleagues about cooperative efforts between the USGS, NASA and
the National Park Service (NPS), to create new remote sensing-based
capabilities for coastal studies and natural resources management, and to
apply those capabilities within interdisciplinary research to national
seashores.
According to Brock, Aircraft lidar (light detection and ranging) remote
sensing techniques are being combined with new analytical methods to
examine fine-scale topography and three-dimensional topographic change;
vegetation community structure; and wildlife habitats within national
seashores. The objectives of the USGS-NPS-NASA project, according to
Brock, are to:
· Create a mass processing system for NASA Airborne Topographic Mapper
(ATM) lidar surveys that allows the rapid generation of a suite of lidar
data products suitable for diverse scientific applications.
· Develop and test new methods for the lidar-based recognition of
cultural features, the categorization of surface types, and the
investigation of coastal geomorphic change.
· Develop and test new methods for the three-dimensional mapping of
coastal vegetation communities and wildlife habitats.
· Undertake interdisciplinary investigations of the feedback between
surficial geological processes and wildlife habitat change, wildlife
behavior, and the success of plant and animal species of concern to NPS
natural resource managers.
· Investigate and compare rates and styles of long-term shoreline and
geomorphic change across the range of natural coastal environments within
the National Park system, while also providing valuable information for
park resource management
Brock said the project is also generating a suite of information products
for northeastern U.S. National Seashores, based upon periodic aircraft
remote sensing (lidar, multispectral scanning, digital aerial photography)
surveys. In a companion session, Brock describes how a multi-temporal
lidar analysis of north Assateague Island, Maryland, is using the
calculation of lidar metrics to analyze trends in the coastal evolution of
that island.
The USGS serves the nation by providing reliable scientific information to:
describe and understand the Earth; minimize loss of life and property from
natural disasters; manage water, biological, energy, and mineral resources;
and enhance and protect our quality of life.
*** USGS ***
This press release and in-depth information about USGS programs may be
found on the USGS home page: . To receive the latest USGS news releases
automatically by email, send a request to . Specify the listserver(s) of
interest from the following names: water-pr: geologic-hazards-pr;
biological-pr; mapping-pr; products-pr; lecture-pr. In the body of the
message write: subscribe (name of listserver) (your name). Example:
subscribe water-pr joe smith.
News Release
U.S. Department of the Interior
U.S. Geological Survey
Crater Makes an Impact on Three Sessions at GSA
What happens when a rock from space that's more than a mile wide slams into
the Earth at supersonic speed? Scientists from the U.S. Geological Survey
(USGS) and its partners are learning as they analyze evidence they are
recovering from cores drilled during the past two summers into the
Chesapeake Bay impact crater and surrounding structures. USGS scientists
David Powars, C. Wylie Poag, and J. Wright Horton, Jr. will present new
evidence obtained from cores and seismic surveys, on the devastating
effects this event had on the Earth 35 million years ago, during three
separate sessions at the Annual Meeting of the Geological Society of
America, scheduled for Nov. 4-8 in Boston, Massachusetts.
It's bigger and deeper than we imagined: "This comet or asteroid shot
through the Earth's atmosphere, leaving a vacuum in its wake. Then it hit,
splashing through several hundred feet of ocean and slicing through several
thousand feet of coastal plain sediments," says Powars. "It fractured the
crystalline bedrock below to at least a depth of seven miles and a width of
85 miles. Billions of tons of ocean water were vaporized and millions of
tons of debris were ejected into the atmosphere within minutes. Marine
life was decimated, and a train of giant waves of seawater inundated the
land," explains Powars, whose talk "Structure and Composition of the
Southwestern Margin of the Buried Chesapeake Bay Impact Structure,
Virginia" is scheduled for 4:45 pm Tues, Nov. 6, Hynes Convention Center
Room 202.
What's written in stone: USGS scientists are looking for clues left in the
bedrock from this extraordinary event in the deep past, to deal with an
ordinary modern-day issue: finding ground water suitable to support a
rapidly-developing region. Studies are underway to understand the impact
structure and its influence on ground water.
"We are examining the composition, age, and structure of crystalline
basement rocks beneath the Coastal Plain sediments. We are beginning to
learn more about these rocks and how they were affected by the impact
event," Horton explains.
"Crystalline rocks hidden under the blanket of Coastal Plain sediments make
up one of the most poorly understood areas of geology in the U.S., and
drilling in the impact structure has provided rare samples from as deep as
2083 feet." "Crystalline Rocks from the First Corehole to Basement in the
Chesapeake Bay Impact Structure, Hampton, Virginia" is scheduled for 2:45
pm Thurs., Nov. 8, Hynes Convention Center Room 200.
Not a creature was stirring: USGS scientists have recently identified a
zone of silt above the post-impact fallout that is devoid of signs of
indigenous life. Wylie Poag points out that the heat from this impact
must have instantly incinerated every living thing within hundreds of
miles. Poag will review evidence -- such as fractures and deformation
features in crystals, melted rock, and tiny glass spheres -- that indicate
shock pressures at ground zero that could only have come from an impact.
"From Shocked Basement to Fallout Spherules: The Coring Record at the
Chesapeake Bay Crater" is scheduled for 4:15 pm Thurs, Nov. 8, Hynes
Convention Center Room 304.
The USGS serves the nation by providing reliable scientific information to:
describe and understand the Earth; minimize loss of life and property from
natural disasters; manage water, biological, energy, and mineral resources;
and enhance and protect our quality of life.
*** USGS ***
This press release and in-depth information about USGS programs may be
found on the USGS home page: . To receive the latest USGS news releases
automatically by email, send a request to . Specify the listserver(s) of
interest from the following names: water-pr: geologic-hazards-pr;
biological-pr; mapping-pr; products-pr; lecture-pr. In the body of the
message write: subscribe (name of listserver) (your name). Example:
subscribe water-pr joe smith.
News Release
U.S. Geological Survey
Release Contact Phone Email
Note to Editors: The Geological Society of America (GSA) Annual Meeting,
Boston, November 5-8. For interviews with the scientists during the GSA
Annual Meeting contact Carolyn Bell (USGS) or Ann Cairns (GSA) in the
newsroom at 617-954-3214.
Answers to Florida Bay Restoration Are Clear as Mud!
Session: "Use of Ecosystem History Data in Resource Management and
Restoration: A Case Study from Florida Bay, Everglades National Park" is
scheduled for 11:45 am Tuesday, Nov. 6, Hynes Convention Center Room 210.
Recent evidence recovered from the muddy bottom of Florida Bay by a team of
USGS scientists indicates that some of the changes in Florida Bay's
ecosystem are natural and some are not. Lynn Brewster-Wingard will present
data from cores that show a significant increase in the last 20-40 years in
Brachidontes exustus, a mussel that is tolerant of poor water quality and a
wide range of salinities.
"The same cores also show a dramatic decrease in molluscan diversity
during the last forty years. These findings indicate a system under
stress," says Wingard. Ancient evidence, however, suggests that the
well-publicized seagrass die-off of 1987-88 may have been part of a natural
cycle. "To restore ecosystems to their natural state, land managers must
understand natural ecosystem variability prior to 20th century human
disturbance," explains Wingard.
Striking changes to plant and animal communities in Florida Bay during the
last few decades are driving massive ecosystem restoration efforts both in
the bay and in the Everglades. Salinity and water quality are critical
issues in the bay. Short cores collected in Florida Bay provide evidence
for natural variability in salinity and seagrass density and abundance
prior to significant human activity in the region. Scientists compare
these data to that gathered from recent sediments to establish the
component of change that can be attributed to human activity versus change
due to natural cycles.
Current research efforts are directed toward extracting data from mollusc
shell growth layers that will illustrate monthly, seasonal and annual
changes in water chemistry prior to alteration of the natural flow of water
into Florida Bay. Results of this work are intended to provide target data
for restoring seasonal water flow into Florida Bay. For more information
on this project "Ecosystem History: Florida Bay and the Southwest Coast,"
please visit our website:
The USGS serves the nation by providing reliable scientific information to:
describe and understand the Earth; minimize loss of life and property from
natural disasters; manage water, biological, energy, and mineral resources;
and enhance and protect our quality of life.
*** USGS ***
Topic 5 of 92 [Geo]: Cartography: Mapping the Planet Earth
Response 45 of 49: Marcia (MarciaH) * Fri, Dec 14, 2001 (20:57) * 6 lines
* Military Wary of Map's Release
References
1. http://www.sciquest.com/cgi-bin/ncommerce3/ExecMacro/sci_level3.d2w/report?nav_banner=bio&resource=articles&gateway=S-geogra
Topic 5 of 92 [Geo]: Cartography: Mapping the Planet Earth
Response 46 of 49: Marcia (MarciaH) * Mon, Jan 14, 2002 (22:26) * 5 lines
Drag out your ancient maps and look what has been overlooked for millennia
An ancient map has led to the discovery of pharoanic gold
mines in Egypt's eastern desert:
http://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/0,,37-2001593723,00.html
Topic 5 of 92 [Geo]: Cartography: Mapping the Planet Earth
Response 47 of 49: Marcia (MarciaH) * Tue, Jan 29, 2002 (09:56) * 1 lines
Paleomapping the Earth - this is fascinating if you have forgotten how much we have changed http://www.scotese.com/earth.htm
Topic 5 of 92 [Geo]: Cartography: Mapping the Planet Earth
Response 48 of 49: Curious Wolfie (wolf) * Tue, Jan 29, 2002 (18:40) * 1 lines
wow, that future stuff is very interesting! like we're going back in time in away!!
Topic 5 of 92 [Geo]: Cartography: Mapping the Planet Earth
Response 49 of 49: Marcia (MarciaH) * Sat, Apr 27, 2002 (00:57) * 9 lines
GEOGRAPHY/GIS
* Changing Antarctica Viewed by NASA Satellite
* Mapping the "Waters of Death"
References
1. http://www.sciquest.com/cgi-bin/ncommerce3/ExecMacro/sci_level3.d2w/report?nav_banner=bio&resource=articles&gateway=S-geogra
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